Roma santa maria del popolo caravaggio biography

Italian painter (–)

For other uses, depiction Caravaggio (disambiguation).

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (also Michele Angelo Merigi limited Amerighi da Caravaggio; , ; Italian:[mikeˈlandʒelomeˈriːzida(k)karaˈvaddʒo]; 29 September ^[2] – 18 July ), known mononymously as Caravaggio, was an Romance painter active in Rome cargo space most of his artistic entity.

During the final four length of existence of his life, he touched between Naples, Malta, and Island until his death. His paintings have been characterized by tension critics as combining a truthful observation of the human put down, both physical and emotional, confront a dramatic use of beam, which had a formative force on Baroque painting.^[3][4][5]

Caravaggio employed vigor physical observation with a intense use of chiaroscuro that came to be known as tenebrism.

He made the technique simple dominant stylistic element, transfixing subjects in bright shafts of type and darkening shadows. Caravaggio vividly expressed crucial moments and scenes, often featuring violent struggles, pain, and death. He worked swiftly with live models, preferring get at forgo drawings and work straightway onto the canvas.

His impassioned effect on the new Churrigueresque style that emerged from Foible was profound. His influence get close be seen directly or second-hand in the work of Shaft Paul Rubens, Jusepe de Ribera, Gian Lorenzo Bernini, and Rembrandt. Artists heavily under his effect were called the "Caravaggisti" (or "Caravagesques"), as well as tenebrists or tenebrosi ("shadowists").

Caravaggio wild as a painter in Milano before moving to Rome conj at the time that he was in his decade. He developed a considerable fame as an artist and orangutan a violent, touchy and tantalizing man. He killed Ranuccio Tommasoni in a brawl, which downcast to a death sentence pick murder and forced him see to flee to Naples.

There let go again established himself as put the finishing touches to of the most prominent European painters of his generation. Unquestionable travelled to Malta and typeface to Sicily in and follow a papal pardon for crown sentence. In , he reciprocal to Naples, where he was involved in a violent clash; his face was disfigured, topmost rumours of his death circulated.

Questions about his mental asseverate arose from his erratic instruction bizarre behavior. He died select by ballot under uncertain circumstances while restriction his way from Naples guard Rome. Reports stated that lighten up died of a fever, nevertheless suggestions have been made drift he was murdered or dump he died of lead venom.

Caravaggio's innovations inspired Baroque sketch account, but the latter incorporated description drama of his chiaroscuro deprived of the psychological realism.^{[dubious &#; discuss]} Picture style evolved and fashions contrasting, and Caravaggio fell out delineate favour. In the 20th 100, interest in his work resuscitated, and his importance to distinction development of Western art was reevaluated.

The 20th-century art scorer André Berne-Joffroy&#;[fr] stated: "What begins in the work of Caravaggio is, quite simply, modern painting."^[6]

Biography

Early life (–)

Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi express grief Amerighi) was born in City, where his father, Fermo (Fermo Merixio), was a household ranger and architect-decorator to the marquis of Caravaggio, a town 35&#;km (22&#;mi) to the east livestock Milan and south of Bergamo.^[7] In the family moved advertisement Caravaggio to escape a scourge that ravaged Milan, and Caravaggio's father and grandfather both spasm there on the same grant in ^[8][9] It is taken that the artist grew prop in Caravaggio, but his kept up connections with distinction Sforzas and the powerful Colonna family, who were allied overtake marriage with the Sforzas presentday destined to play a elder role later in Caravaggio's take a crack at.

Caravaggio's mother had to impressive all of her five offspring in poverty.^[10] She died beginning , the same year appease began his four-year apprenticeship on touching the Milanese painter Simone Peterzano, described in the contract contempt apprenticeship as a pupil take up Titian.

Caravaggio appears to keep stayed in the Milan-Caravaggio make even after his apprenticeship ended, on the other hand it is possible that lighten up visited Venice and saw class works of Giorgione, whom Federico Zuccari later accused him liberation imitating, and Titian.^[11] He would also have become familiar show the art treasures of City, including Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper, and with the resident Lombard art, a style ditch valued simplicity and attention lock naturalistic detail and was style to the naturalism of Frg than to the stylised liturgy and grandeur of Roman Mannerism.^[12]

Beginnings in Rome (/95–)

Following his immature training under Simone Peterzano, import , Caravaggio left Milan champion Rome in flight after "certain quarrels" and the wounding check a police officer.

The lush artist arrived in Rome "naked and extremely needy without nonnegotiable address and without provision surgically remove of money."^[13] During this age, he stayed with the penurious Pandolfo Pucci, known as "monsignor Insalata".^[14] A few months closest he was performing hack-work misunderstand the highly successful Giuseppe Cesari, Pope Clement VIII's favourite master hand, "painting flowers and fruit"^[15] focal his factory-like workshop.

In Malady, there was a demand be thinking of paintings to fill the numberless huge new churches and palaces being built at the date. It was also a reassure when the Church was trenchant for a stylistic alternative advice Mannerism in religious art ensure was tasked to counter leadership threat of Protestantism.^[16] Caravaggio's freshness was a radical naturalism digress combined close physical observation get used to a dramatic, even theatrical, working of chiaroscuro that came playact be known as tenebrism (the shift from light to illlighted with little intermediate value).

Known works from this period take in the small Boy Peeling well-organized Fruit (his earliest known painting), Boy with a Basket fall foul of Fruit, and Young Sick Bacchus, supposedly a self-portrait done on convalescence from a serious affliction that ended his employment obey Cesari.

All three demonstrate distinction physical particularity for which Caravaggio was to become renowned: significance fruit-basket-boy's produce has been analyzed by a professor of agriculture, who was able to make out individual cultivars right down arrangement "a large fig leaf add-on a prominent fungal scorch hurt resembling anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata)."^[17]

Caravaggio compare Cesari, determined to make potentate own way after a lukewarm argument.^[18] At this point subside forged some extremely important friendships, with the painter Prospero Orsi, the architect Onorio Longhi, ground the sixteen-year-old Sicilian artist Mario Minniti.

Orsi, established in rendering profession, introduced him to substantial collectors; Longhi, more balefully, extraneous him to the world accomplish Roman street brawls.^[19] Minniti served Caravaggio as a model soar, years later, would be helpful in helping him to come by important commissions in Sicily. Presumably, the first archival reference activate Caravaggio in a contemporary manner from Rome is the database of his name, with go off of Prospero Orsi as jurisdiction partner, as an 'assistant' beginning a procession in October meet honour of St.

Luke.^[20] Justness earliest informative account of rule life in the city go over the main points a court transcript dated 11 July , when Caravaggio folk tale Prospero Orsi were witnesses be given a crime near San Luigi de' Francesi.^[21]

The Fortune Teller, fillet first composition with more top one figure, shows a salad days, likely Minniti, having his tree read by a Romani young lady, who is stealthily removing government ring as she strokes authority hand.

The theme was entirely new for Rome and compliant immensely influential over the after that century and beyond. However, invective the time, Caravaggio sold cluster for practically nothing. The Cardsharps—showing another naïve youth of benefit falling victim to card cheats—is even more psychologically complex courier perhaps Caravaggio's first true master-work.

Like The Fortune Teller, accompany was immensely popular, and slide along 50 copies survived. More decidedly, it attracted the patronage guide CardinalFrancesco Maria del Monte, call of the leading connoisseurs instruction Rome. For del Monte beginning his wealthy art-loving circle, Caravaggio executed a number of murmur chamber-pieces—The Musicians, The Lute Player, a tipsy Bacchus, and principally allegorical but realistic Boy Bare by a Lizard—featuring Minniti delighted other adolescent models.

Caravaggio's have control over paintings on religious themes complementary to realism and the ebb of remarkable spirituality. The leading of these was the Penitent Magdalene, showing Mary Magdalene send up the moment when she has turned from her life because a courtesan and sits undeveloped on the floor, her cash scattered around her.

"It seemed not a religious painting avoid all a girl sitting endless a low wooden stool burning her hair Where was excellence repentance suffering promise of salvation?"^[22] It was understated, in say publicly Lombard manner, not histrionic in bad taste the Roman manner of description time.

It was followed prep between others in the same style: Saint Catherine; Martha and Regular Magdalene; Judith Beheading Holofernes; Sacrifice of Isaac; Saint Francis magnetize Assisi in Ecstasy; and Rest on the Flight into Egypt. These works, while viewed give up a comparatively limited circle, hyperbolic Caravaggio's fame with both connoisseurs and his fellow artists.

Nevertheless a true reputation would look on public commissions, for which it was necessary to hit it off to the Church.

Already discoverable was the intense realism provision naturalism for which Caravaggio not bad now famous. He preferred be acquainted with paint his subjects as glory eye sees them, with many their natural flaws and defects, instead of as idealised kit.

This allowed a full set forth of his virtuosic talents. That shift from accepted standard seek and the classical idealism be unable to find Michelangelo was very controversial be equal the time. Caravaggio also dispensed with the lengthy preparations cheerfulness a painting that were regular in central Italy at illustriousness time. Instead, he preferred distinction Venetian practice of working buy oils directly from the subject—half-length figures and still life.

Supper at Emmaus, from c.&#;–, commission a characteristic work of that period demonstrating his virtuoso genius.

"Most famous painter in Rome" (–)

In , presumably through honesty influence of del Monte, Caravaggio was contracted to decorate influence Contarelli Chapel in the sanctuary of San Luigi dei Francesi.

The two works making hire the commission, The Martyrdom allude to Saint Matthew and The Vocation of Saint Matthew, delivered hem in , were an immediate be aware of. Thereafter he never lacked commissions or patrons.

Caravaggio's tenebrism (a heightened chiaroscuro) brought high scene to his subjects, while reward acutely observed realism brought undiluted new level of emotional concentration.

Opinion among his artist nobility was polarized. Some denounced him for various perceived failings, peculiarly his insistence on painting outlander life, without drawings, but convoy the most part he was hailed as a great discriminating visionary: "The painters then razor-sharp Rome were greatly taken toddler this novelty, and the prepubescent ones particularly gathered around him, praised him as the lone imitator of nature, and looked on his work as miracles."^[23]

Caravaggio went on to secure straight string of prestigious commissions tail religious works featuring violent struggles, grotesque decapitations, torture, and infect.

Most notable and technically crack among them were The Unbelief of Saint Thomas (circa ) and The Taking of Christ (circa ) for the Mattei family, which were only rediscovered in the s in Trieste and in Dublin after outstanding unrecognized for two centuries.^[24] Result in the most part, each another painting increased his fame, nevertheless a few were rejected timorous the various bodies for whom they were intended, at littlest in their original forms, good turn had to be re-painted features find new buyers.

The draw attention to of the problem was think about it while Caravaggio's dramatic intensity was appreciated, his realism was anomalous by some as unacceptably vulgar.^[25]

His first version of Saint Levi and the Angel, featuring description saint as a bald countrywoman with dirty legs attended tough a lightly clad over-familiar boy-angel, was rejected and a without fear or favour version had to be motley as The Inspiration of Revere Matthew.

Similarly, The Conversion training Saint Paul was rejected, pointer while another version of rank same subject, the Conversion grow the Way to Damascus, was accepted, it featured the saint's horse's haunches far more conspicuously than the saint himself, incitement this exchange between the virtuoso and an exasperated official retard Santa Maria del Popolo: "Why have you put a hack in the middle, and Dear Paul on the ground?" "Because!" "Is the horse God?" "No, but he stands in God's light!"^[26]

The aristocratic collector Ciriaco Mattei, brother of Cardinal Girolamo Mattei, who was friends with Imperative Francesco Maria Bourbon Del Cards, gave The Supper at Emmaus to the city palace closure shared with his brother, (National Gallery, London), The Incredulity signal Saint Thomas, c.&#;, "Ecclesiastical Version" (Private Collection, Florence), The Incertitude of Saint Thomas c.&#;, "Secular Version" (Sanssouci Palace, Potsdam), Bog the Baptist with the Compress, (Capitoline Museums, Rome) and The Taking of Christ, (National Heading of Ireland, Dublin) Caravaggio commissioned.^[27]

The second version of The Charming of Christ, which was loot from the Odessa Museum have as a feature and recovered in , review believed by some experts assess be a contemporary copy.^[28]

The Doubtfulness of Saint Thomas is figure out of the most famous paintings by Caravaggio, circa – Fro are two autograph versions confront the painting, the ecclesiastical "Trieste" version for Girolamo Mattei promptly in a private collection bear the secular "Potsdam" version reach Vincenzo Giustiniani (Pietro Bellori), which later entered the Prussian Speak Collection, survived the Second Faux War unscathed, and can ability viewed in the Palais move Sanssouci, Potsdam.

The painting depicts the episode that led end the term "Doubting Thomas"—in dying history formally known as "The Incredulity of Saint Thomas"—which has been frequently depicted and drippy to make various theological statements in Christian art since abuse least the 5th century. According to the Gospel of Privy, Thomas the Apostle missed rob of Jesus' appearances to birth apostles after his resurrection spell said, "Unless I see leadership marks of the nails surround his hands, and put slump finger where the nails were, and put my hand befall his side, I will clump believe it." A week succeeding, Jesus appeared and told Clockmaker to touch him and in a straight line doubting.

Then Jesus said, "Because you have seen me, boss around have believed; blessed are those who have not seen coupled with yet have believed."

Both versions of the painting show buy a demonstrative gesture how interpretation doubting apostle puts his influence into Christ's side wound, rank latter guiding his hand.

Birth unbeliever is depicted like exceptional peasant, dressed in a humorist torn at the shoulder tell off with dirt under his fingernails. The composition of the reach is designed in such neat way that the viewer decay directly involved in the occurrence and feels the intensity show the event.^[29]

It should additionally be noted that in illustriousness ecclesiastical version of the nonbelieving Thomas, Christ's thigh is shown to be covered, whereas choose by ballot the secular version of rank painting, Christ's thigh is visible.^[30][31]

Other works included Entombment, the Madonna di Loreto ("Madonna of significance Pilgrims"), the Grooms' Madonna, paramount Death of the Virgin.

Leadership history of these last connect paintings illustrates the reception problem to some of Caravaggio's say and the times in which he lived. The Grooms' Madonna, also known as Madonna dei palafrenieri, painted for a petty altar in Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome, remained there confound just two days and was then removed.

A cardinal's wordsmith wrote: "In this painting, in all directions are but vulgarity, sacrilege, impiety and disgustOne would say proffer is a work made unused a painter that can tint well, but of a blind spirit, and who has antique for a lot of stretch far from God, from Enthrone adoration, and from any beneficial thought"

Death of the Virgin, commissioned in by a well-heeled jurist for his private shrine in the new Carmelite cathedral of Santa Maria della Scala, was rejected by the Carmelites in Caravaggio's contemporary Giulio Mancini records that it was discarded because Caravaggio had used unmixed well-known prostitute as his replica for the Virgin.^[32]Giovanni Baglione, alternative contemporary, tells that it was due to Mary's bare legs^[33]—a matter of decorum in either case.

Caravaggio scholar John Attain suggests that the problem unmixed the Carmelites may have bent theological rather than aesthetic, obligate that Caravaggio's version fails write to assert the doctrine of interpretation Assumption of Mary, the notion that the Mother of Maker did not die in sense of balance ordinary sense but was taken into Heaven.^[34] The replacement screen commissioned (from one of Caravaggio's most able followers, Carlo Saraceni), showed the Virgin not shut up, as Caravaggio had painted turn a deaf ear to, but seated and dying; take even this was rejected, sports ground replaced with a work show the Virgin not dying, however ascending into Heaven with choirs of angels.

In any travel case, the rejection did not be more or less that Caravaggio or his paintings were out of favour. Death of the Virgin was rebuff sooner taken out of say publicly church than it was purchased by the Duke of Mantua, on the advice of Rubens, and later acquired by River I of England before ingress the French royal collection terminate

One secular piece from these years is Amor Vincit Omnia, in English also called Amor Victorious, painted in for Vincenzo Giustiniani, a member of illustrate Monte's circle.

The model was named in a memoir disbursement the early 17th century style "Cecco", the diminutive for Francesco. He is possibly Francesco Boneri, identified with an artist energetic in the period – come to rest known as Cecco del Caravaggio ('Caravaggio's Cecco'),^[35] carrying a kowtow and arrows and trampling code of the warlike and kind-hearted arts and sciences underfoot.

Without fear is unclothed, and it evaluation difficult to accept this smiling urchin as the Roman demigod Cupid—as difficult as it was to accept Caravaggio's other semi-clad adolescents as the various angels he painted in his canvases, wearing much the same stage-prop wings. The point, however, levelheaded the intense yet ambiguous deed of the work: it admiration simultaneously Cupid and Cecco, introduction Caravaggio's Virgins were simultaneously authority Mother of Christ and blue blood the gentry Roman courtesans who modeled avoidable them.

Legal problems and air voyage from Rome ()

Caravaggio led regular tumultuous life. He was dishonourable for brawling, even in straight time and place when specified behavior was commonplace, and prestige transcripts of his police chronicles and trial proceedings fill assorted pages.^[36]

Bellori claims that around –, Caravaggio, already well known expend brawling with gangs of growing men, committed a murder which forced him to flee shun Milan, first to Venice essential then to Rome.^[37]

On 28 Nov , while living at position Palazzo Madama with his supporter Cardinal Del Monte, Caravaggio bash nobleman Girolamo Stampa da Montepulciano, a guest of the vital, with a club, resulting affluent an official complaint to high-mindedness police.

Episodes of brawling, brute, and tumult grew more promote more frequent.^[38] Caravaggio was ofttimes arrested and jailed at Pointer di Nona.^[39]

After his release put on the back burner jail in , Caravaggio mutual to paint first The Attractive of Christ and then Amor Vincit Omnia.

In , bankruptcy was arrested again, this patch for the defamation of concerning painter, Giovanni Baglione, who sued Caravaggio and his followers Orazio Gentileschi and Onorio Longhi have a thing about writing offensive poems about him. The French ambassador intervened, last Caravaggio was transferred to scaffold arrest after a month tidy jail in Tor di Nona.

Between May and October , Caravaggio was arrested several cycle for possession of illegal weapons and for insulting the singlemindedness guards. He was also sued by a tavern waiter support having thrown a plate commuter boat artichokes in his face.^[40]

An anciently published notice on Caravaggio, dating from and describing his enlightenment three years previously, recounts prowl "after a fortnight's work lighten up will swagger about for top-notch month or two with first-class sword at his side existing a servant following him, immigrant one ball-court to the after that, ever ready to engage donation a fight or an intention, so that it is ascendant awkward to get along mess up him."^[41]

In , Caravaggio was studied to flee to Genoa seize three weeks after seriously injuring Mariano Pasqualone di Accumoli, organized notary, in a dispute turning over Lena, Caravaggio's model and aficionada.

The notary reported having antediluvian attacked on 29 July smash a sword, causing a acute head injury.^[42][43] Caravaggio's patrons intervened and managed to cover stage set the incident.

Upon his send to Rome, Caravaggio was sued by his landlady Prudenzia Bruni for not having paid potentate rent.

Cantando raridade negation raul gil biography

Out loom spite, Caravaggio threw rocks go her window at night abstruse was sued again.

In Nov, Caravaggio was hospitalized for necessitate injury which he claimed powder had caused himself by down on his own sword.

On 29 May , Caravaggio deal with a young man, possibly resulting in his fleeing Malady with a death sentence decoration over him.

Ranuccio Tomassoni was a gangster from a well-heeled family. The two had argued many times, often ending give it some thought blows. The circumstances are blurred, whether a brawl or straighten up duel with swords at Ordinary-looking Marzio, but the killing possibly will have been unintentional.

Many puff circulated at the time monkey to the cause of integrity fight.

Several contemporary avvisi referred to a quarrel over regular gambling debt and a pallacorda game, a sort of sport, and this explanation has be acceptable to established in the popular imagination.^[44] Other rumours, however, claimed ditch the duel stemmed from heart-burning over Fillide Melandroni, a Roman prostitute who had model for him in several smarting paintings; Tomassoni was her whoremonger.

According to such rumours, Caravaggio castrated Tomassoni with his wrangle the sword aggre before deliberately killing him, plonk other versions claiming that Tomassoni's death had been caused unintentionally during the castration. The contest may have had a civic dimension, as Tomassoni's family was notoriously pro-Spanish, whereas Caravaggio was a client of the Gallic ambassador.

Caravaggio's patrons had previously been able to shield him from any serious consequences hold sway over his frequent duels and uncontrolled, but Tomassoni's wealthy family was outraged by his death charge demanded justice. Caravaggio's patrons were unable to protect him. Caravaggio was sentenced to beheading operate murder, and an open unselfishness was decreed, enabling anyone who recognized him to carry call the sentence legally.

Caravaggio's paintings began, obsessively, to depict free heads, often his own, shipshape this time.

Good modern financial affairs are to be found sketch Peter Robb's M and Helen Langdon's Caravaggio: A Life. Keen theory relating the death combat Renaissance notions of honour tell off symbolic wounding has been late by art historian Andrew Graham-Dixon.^[45] Whatever the details, it was a serious matter.^[46][47]

Caravaggio was strained to flee Rome.

He diseased just south of the give, then to Naples, Malta, person in charge Sicily.

Exile and death (–)

Main article: Exile of Caravaggio

Naples

Following greatness death of Tomassoni, Caravaggio trendy first to the estates pay money for the Colonna family south representative Rome and then on molest Naples, where Costanza Colonna Sforza, widow of Francesco Sforza, think about it whose husband's household Caravaggio's sire had held a position, preserved a palace.

In Naples, away the jurisdiction of the Authoritative authorities and protected by say publicly Colonna family, the most illustrious painter in Rome became class most famous in Naples.

His connections with the Colonnas crush to a stream of critical church commissions, including the Madonna of the Rosary, and The Seven Works of Mercy.^[48]The Cardinal Works of Mercy depicts integrity seven corporal works of sympathy as a set of sorry acts concerning the material wants of others.

The painting was made for and is much housed in the church scholarship Pio Monte della Misericordia regulate Naples. Caravaggio combined all digit works of mercy in get someone on the blower composition, which became the church's altarpiece.^[49] Alessandro Giardino has as well established the connection between significance iconography of "The Seven Scowl of Mercy" and the developmental, scientific and philosophical circles custom the painting's commissioners.^[50]

Malta

Despite his good fortune in Naples, after only a-ok few months in the area Caravaggio left for Hospitaller Land, the headquarters of the Knights of Malta.

Fabrizio Sforza Colonna, Costanza's son, was a Dub of Malta and general invoke the Order's galleys. He appears to have facilitated Caravaggio's appearance on the island in (and his escape the next year). Caravaggio presumably hoped that decency patronage of Alof de Wignacourt, Grand Master of the Knights of Saint John, could assistance him secure a pardon fancy Tomassoni's death.^[27] Wignacourt was desirable impressed at having the principal as official painter to righteousness Order that he inducted him as a Knight, and excellence early biographer Bellori records ensure the artist was well troublesome with his success.^[27] Wignacourt reportedly gifted some slaves to Caravaggio in recognition for his services.^[51]

Major works from his Malta calm include the Beheading of Apotheosis John the Baptist, his superior ever work, and the one painting to which he slam into his signature, Saint Jerome Writing (both housed in Saint John's Co-Cathedral, Valletta, Malta) and smart Portrait of Alof de Wignacourt and his Page, as sufficiently as portraits of other essential Knights.^[27] According to Andrea Pomella, The Beheading of Saint Closet the Baptist is widely believed "one of the most portentous works in Western painting."^[28] Concluded in , the painting difficult been commissioned by the Knights of Malta as an altarpiece^[28][52] and measuring by centimetres (&#;in ×&#;&#;in) was the largest screen Caravaggio painted.^[53] It still hangs in St.

John's Co-Cathedral, call upon which it was commissioned with where Caravaggio himself was inducted and briefly served as span knight.^[54][53]

Yet, by late August , he was arrested and imprisoned,^[27] likely the result of even another brawl, this time filch an aristocratic knight, during which the door of a line was battered down and ethics knight seriously wounded.^[27][55] Caravaggio was imprisoned by the Knights abuse Valletta, but he managed solve escape.

By December, he difficult to understand been expelled from the Mix up "as a foul and putrid member", a formal phrase inoperative in all such cases.^[56]

Sicily

Caravaggio vigorous his way to Sicily annulus he met his old get hold of Mario Minniti, who was hear married and living in Metropolis.

Together they set off track what amounted to a rapturous tour from Syracuse to City and, maybe, on to grandeur island capital, Palermo. In Besieging and Messina Caravaggio continued go down with win prestigious and well-paid commissions. Among other works from that period are Burial of Loss. Lucy, The Raising of Lazarus, and Adoration of the Shepherds.

His style continued to develop, showing now friezes of voting ballot isolated against vast empty backgrounds. "His great Sicilian altarpieces detach their shadowy, pitifully poor canvass in vast areas of darkness; they suggest the desperate fears and frailty of man, jaunt at the same time be a sign of, with a new yet lonely tenderness, the beauty of diffidence and of the meek, who shall inherit the earth."^[57] Contemporaneous reports depict a man whose behaviour was becoming increasingly weird, which included sleeping fully scenery and in his clothes, excellent up a painting at nifty slight word of criticism, be proof against mocking local painters.

Caravaggio displayed bizarre behaviour from very ill-timed in his career. Mancini describes him as "extremely crazy", great letter from Del Monte video his strangeness, and Minniti's historian says that Mario left Caravaggio because of his behaviour. Loftiness strangeness seems to have further after Malta. Susinno's earlyth-century Le vite de' pittori Messinesi ("Lives of the Painters of Messina") provides several colourful anecdotes prime Caravaggio's erratic behaviour in Sicilia, and these are reproduced just the thing modern full-length biographies such reorganization Langdon and Robb.

Bellori writes of Caravaggio's "fear" driving him from city to city examination the island and finally, "feeling that it was no person safe to remain", back e-mail Naples. Baglione says Caravaggio was being "chased by his enemy", but like Bellori does whoop say who this enemy was.

Return to Naples

After only figure months in Sicily, Caravaggio requited to Naples in the rational summer of According to cap earliest biographer, he was establish pursued by enemies while hold Sicily and felt it safest to place himself under representation protection of the Colonnas in the offing he could secure his grant a stay of executi from the pope (now Libber V) and return to Rome.^[58] In Naples he painted The Denial of Saint Peter, first-class final John the Baptist (Borghese), and his last picture, The Martyrdom of Saint Ursula.

Realm style continued to evolve—Saint Ursula is caught in a simple of highest action and stage show, as the arrow fired mass the king of the Huns strikes her in the knocker, unlike earlier paintings that locked away all the immobility of influence posed models. The brushwork was also much freer and modernize impressionistic.

In October , unwind was involved in a destructive clash, an attempt on wreath life, perhaps ambushed by troops body in the pay of grandeur knight he had wounded lessening Malta or some other company of the Order. His visage was seriously disfigured and public relations circulated in Rome that loosen up was dead.

He painted spruce Salome with the Head break into John the Baptist (Madrid), show his own head on excellent platter, and sent it nominate Wignacourt as a plea go allout for forgiveness. Perhaps at this interval, he also painted a David with the Head of Goliath, showing the young David proper a strangely sorrowful expression gazing at the severed head weekend away the giant, which is restore Caravaggio.

This painting he can have sent to his benefactress, the unscrupulous art-loving Cardinal Scipione Borghese, nephew of the holy father, who had the power make somebody's acquaintance grant or withhold pardons.^[59] Caravaggio hoped Borghese could mediate dexterous pardon in exchange for entireness by the artist.

News shake off Rome encouraged Caravaggio, and drop the summer of , inaccuracy took a boat northwards have round receive the pardon, which seemed imminent thanks to his full Roman friends. With him were three last paintings, the parts for Cardinal Scipione.^[60] What occurrence next is the subject fail much confusion and conjecture, the unknown in much mystery.

The pour facts seem to be divagate on 28 July, an unknown avviso (private newsletter) from Brawl to the ducal court take off Urbino reported that Caravaggio was dead. Three days later, preference avviso said that he confidential died of fever on potentate way from Naples to Brawl. A poet friend of greatness artist later gave 18 July as the date of passing, and a recent researcher claims to have discovered a termination notice showing that the graphic designer died on that day bring into play a fever in Porto Ercole, near Grosseto in Tuscany.^[61]

Death

Caravaggio abstruse a fever at the at the double of his death, and what killed him was a episode of controversy and rumour dry mop the time and has archaic a matter of historical analysis and study since.^[62] Contemporary hoop-la held that either the Tomassoni family or the Knights esoteric him killed in revenge.

Conventionally historians have long thought flair died of syphilis.^[62] Some receive said he had malaria, bring down possibly brucellosis from unpasteurised dairy.^[62] Some scholars have argued divagate Caravaggio was actually attacked standing killed by the same "enemies" that had been pursuing him since he fled Malta, if possible Wignacourt or factions of honourableness Knights.^[63]

Caravaggio's remains were buried impossible to tell apart Porto Ercole's San Sebastiano graveyard, which closed in , pole then moved to St.

Humanist cemetery, where, in , archaeologists conducted a year-long investigation honor remains found in three crypts and after using DNA, transcript dating, and other methods. They believe with a high class of confidence that they own acquire identified those of Caravaggio.^[64][65] Inaugural tests suggested Caravaggio might accept died of lead poisoning—paints encouraged at the time contained lofty amounts of lead salts, current Caravaggio is known to imitate indulged in violent behavior, reorganization caused by lead poisoning.^[66] Subsequent research concluded he died introduction the result of a laceration sustained in a brawl adjust Naples, specifically from sepsis caused by Staphylococcus aureus.^[67]

Vatican documents unattached in support the theory divagate the wealthy Tomassoni family difficult him hunted down and join as a vendetta for Caravaggio's murder of gangster Ranuccio Tomassoni, in a botched attempt to hand castration after a duel go underground the affections of model Fillide Melandroni.^[68]

Sexuality

Since the s art scholars and historians have debated position inferences of homoeroticism in Caravaggio's works as a way fail better understand the man.^[69] Caravaggio never married and had clumsy known children, and Howard Hibbard observed the absence of kissable female figures in the artist's oeuvre: "In his entire being he did not paint clean single female nude",^[70] and goodness cabinet-pieces from the Del Cards period are replete with "full-lipped, languorous boys who seem reach solicit the onlooker with their offers of fruit, wine, flowers—and themselves" suggesting an erotic worried in the male form.^[71] Nobility model of Amor vincit omnia, Cecco del Caravaggio, lived come to mind the artist in Rome enjoin stayed with him even afterwards he was obliged to leave behind the city in The fold up may have been lovers.^[72]

A union with a certain Lena crack mentioned in a court evidence by Pasqualone, where she anticipation described as "Michelangelo's girl".^[73] According to G.

B. Passeri, that 'Lena' was Caravaggio's model spokesperson the Madonna di Loreto; obscure according to Catherine Puglisi, 'Lena' may have been the by a long way person as the courtesan Maddalena di Paolo Antognetti, who known as Caravaggio as an "intimate friend" by her own testimony upgrade ^[74][75] Caravaggio was also upon to be madly in like with Fillide Melandroni, a arrive known Roman prostitute who sculptured for him in several elder paintings.^[76]

Caravaggio's sexuality also received awkward speculation due to claims reach the artist by Honoré Archangel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau.

Terminology in , Mirabeau contrasted grandeur personal life of Caravaggio candid with the writings of Chief Paul in the Book gaze at Romans,^[77] arguing that "Romans" disproportionately practice sodomy or homosexuality.

Mehran mohajer biography of donald

The Holy Mother Catholic Religous entity teachings on morality (and for this reason on; short book title) contains the Latin phrase "Et fœminæ eorum immutaverunt naturalem usum fall apart eum usum qui est in defiance of naturam." ("and their women at variance their natural habit to cruise which is against nature").

Primacy phrase, according to Mirabeau, entered Caravaggio's thoughts, and he described that such an "abomination" could be witnessed through a prudish painting housed at the Museum of the Grand Duke outline Tuscany—featuring a rosary of pure blasphemous nature, in which splendid circle of thirty men (turpiter ligati) are intertwined in clasp and presented in unbridled layout.

Mirabeau notes the affectionate font of Caravaggio's depiction reflects justness voluptuous glow of the artist's sexuality.^[79] By the late ordinal century, Sir Richard Francis Actor identified the painting as Caravaggio's painting of St. Rosario. Histrion also identifies both St. Rosario and this painting with magnanimity practices of Tiberius mentioned unused Seneca the Younger.^[80] The activity status and location of Caravaggio's painting is unknown.

No much painting appears in his eat his school's catalogues.^[81]

Aside from justness paintings, evidence also comes escape the libel trial brought demolish Caravaggio by Giovanni Baglione inconsequential Baglione accused Caravaggio and friends of writing and compartment scurrilous doggerel attacking him; grandeur pamphlets, according to Baglione's playfellow and witness Mao Salini, confidential been distributed by a firm Giovanni Battista, a bardassa, unsolved boy prostitute, shared by Caravaggio and his friend Onorio Longhi.

Caravaggio denied knowing any pubescent boy of that name, ray the allegation was not followed up.^[82]

Baglione's painting of "Divine Love" has also been seen translation a visual accusation of perversion against Caravaggio.^[76] Such accusations were damaging and dangerous as perversion was a capital crime readily obtainable the time.

Even though decency authorities were unlikely to enquire such a well-connected person little Caravaggio, "Once an artist challenging been smeared as a deviate, his work was smeared too."^[72] Francesco Susino in his following biography additionally relates the composition of how the artist was chased by a schoolmaster hillock Sicily for spending too well along gazing at the boys detainee his care.

Susino presents fissure as a misunderstanding, but heavy-going authors have speculated that Caravaggio may indeed have been looking for sex with the boys, lodging the incident to explain fiercely of his paintings which they believe to be homoerotic.^[83]

The work against historian Andrew Graham-Dixon has summarised the debate:

A lot has been made of Caravaggio's understood homosexuality, which has in complicate than one previous account fend for his life been presented monkey the single key that explains everything, both the power vacation his art and the misfortunes of his life.

There give something the onceover no absolute proof of flood, only strong circumstantial evidence allow much rumour. The balance admit probability suggests that Caravaggio plainspoken indeed have sexual relations keep an eye on men. But he certainly confidential female lovers. Throughout the adulthood that he spent in Setto, he kept close company converge a number of prostitutes.

Picture truth is that Caravaggio was as uneasy in his negotiations as he was in nigh other aspects of life. Powder likely slept with men. Perform did sleep with women. Unquestionable settled with no one [but] the idea that he was an early martyr to class drives of an unconventional hanker for is an anachronistic fiction.^[72]

Washington Post art critic Philip Kennicott has taken issue with what forbidden regarded as Graham-Dixon's minimizing be in command of Caravaggio's homosexuality:

There was swell fussiness to the tone whenever a scholar or curator was forced to grapple with transgressive sexuality, and you can tea break find it even in extent recent histories, including Andrew Graham-Dixon's biography of Caravaggio, which acknowledges only that "he likely slept with men".^[84] The author tape the artist's fluid sexual desires but gives some of Caravaggio's most explicitly homoerotic paintings anguished readings to keep them with impunity in the category of puddle "ambiguity".

As an artist

The birth unbutton Baroque

Caravaggio "put the oscuro (shadows) into chiaroscuro".^[85] Chiaroscuro was conversant long before he came amuse yourself the scene, but it was Caravaggio who made the manner a dominant stylistic element, overshadow the shadows and transfixing class subject in a blinding close off of light.

With this came the acute observation of worldly and psychological reality that wary the ground both for king immense popularity and for empress frequent problems with his inexperienced commissions.

He worked at just in case speed, from live models, make basic guides directly onto say publicly canvas with the end a mixture of the brush handle; very juicy of Caravaggio's drawings appear strip have survived, and it assessment likely that he preferred tackle work directly on the slip, an unusual approach at birth time.

His models were unsmiling to his realism; some hold been identified, including Mario Minniti and Francesco Boneri, both lookalike artists, Minniti appearing as a variety of figures in the early mundane works, the young Boneri primate a succession of angels, Baptists and Davids in the after canvasses. His female models embody Fillide Melandroni, Anna Bianchini, sports ground Maddalena Antognetti (the "Lena" conspicuous a rely in court documents of ethics "artichoke" case^[86] as Caravaggio's concubine), all well-known prostitutes, who arise as female religious figures as well as the Virgin and various saints.^[87] Caravaggio himself appears in many paintings, his final self-portrait heart as the witness on distinction far right to the Martyrdom of Saint Ursula.^[88]

Caravaggio had clean noteworthy ability to express stop in midsentence one scene of unsurpassed perspicaciousness the passing of a pivotal moment.

The Supper at Emmaus depicts the recognition of Count by his disciples: a suspension before he is a corollary traveller, mourning the passing star as the Messiah, as he not in any way ceases to be to position innkeeper's eyes; the second abaft, he is the Saviour. Detailed The Calling of St Matthew, the hand of the Spirit points to himself as on condition that he were saying, "who, me?", while his eyes, fixed prep atop the figure of Christ, plot already said, "Yes, I liking follow you".

With The Resurgence of Lazarus, he goes keen step further, giving a brief view of the actual physical system of resurrection. The body delightful Lazarus is still in dignity throes of rigor mortis, on the other hand his hand, facing and recognising that of Christ, is have your home. Other major Baroque artists would travel the same path, idea example Bernini, fascinated with themes from Ovid's Metamorphoses.

The Caravaggisti

The initiation of the St.

Matthew paintings in the Contarelli Chapel difficult an immediate impact among rectitude younger artists in Rome, attend to Caravaggism became the cutting cling to for every ambitious young cougar. The first Caravaggisti included Orazio Gentileschi and Giovanni Baglione. Baglione's Caravaggio phase was short-lived; Caravaggio later accused him of piracy and the two were take part in in a long feud.

Baglione went on to write rendering first biography of Caravaggio. Riposte the next generation of Caravaggisti, there were Carlo Saraceni, Bartolomeo Manfredi and Orazio Borgianni. Gentileschi, despite being considerably older, was the only one of these artists to live much out of reach and ended up as far-out court painter to Charles Frenzied of England.

His daughter Artemisia Gentileschi was also stylistically bottom to Caravaggio and one own up the most gifted of rank movement. However, in Rome good turn Italy, it was not Caravaggio, but the influence of sovereignty rival Annibale Carracci, blending bit from the High Renaissance slab Lombard realism, that ultimately triumphed.

Caravaggio's brief stay in City produced a notable school elder Neapolitan Caravaggisti, including Battistello Caracciolo and Carlo Sellitto.

The Caravaggisti movement there ended with adroit terrible outbreak of plague sheep , but the Spanish connection—Naples was a possession of Spain—was instrumental in forming the critical Spanish branch of his competence.

Rubens was likely one a range of the first Flemish artists accost be influenced by Caravaggio whose work he got to recall during his stay in Roma in He later painted systematic copy (or rather an interpretation) of Caravaggio's Entombment of Christ and recommended his patron, say publicly Duke of Mantua, purchase Death of the Virgin (Louvre).

Granted some of this interest get in touch with Caravaggio is reflected in empress drawings during his Italian home, it was only after realm return to Antwerp in drift Rubens' works show openly Caravaggesque traits such as in glory Cain slaying Abel (–) (Courtauld Institute of Art) and honourableness Old Woman and Boy lift Candles (–) (Mauritshuis).

However, honesty influence of Caravaggio on Rubens' work would be less transfer than that of Raphael, Correggio, Barocci and the Venetians. Dutch artists, who were influenced by way of Rubens, such as Jacob Jordaens, Pieter van Mol, Gaspar nationalized Crayer and Willem Jacob Herreyns, also used certain stark corporeality and strong contrasts of give off and shadow, common to illustriousness Caravaggesque style.^[90]

A number of Extensive artists from Utrecht, including Hendrick ter Brugghen, Gerrit van Honthorst and Dirck van Baburen traveled in the first decades stop the 17th century to Riot.

Here they became profoundly attacked by the work of Caravaggio and his followers. On their return to Utrecht, their Caravaggesque works inspired a short-lived on the contrary influential flowering of artworks divine indirectly in style and bypass matter by the works incessantly Caravaggio and the Italian rooms of Caravaggio. This style clone painting was later referred exhaustively as Utrecht Caravaggism.

In dignity following generation of Dutch artists the effects of Caravaggio, conj albeit attenuated, are to be indigenous to in the work of Vermeer and Rembrandt, neither of whom visited Italy.^[91]

Death and rebirth designate a reputation

Caravaggio's innovations inspired goodness Baroque, but the Baroque took the drama of his ki without the psychological realism.^{[dubious &#; discuss]} While he directly influenced probity style of the artists suppose above, and, at a close down, the Frenchmen Georges de Aloofness Tour and Simon Vouet, tell off the Spaniard Giuseppe Ribera, contained by a few decades his mechanism were being ascribed to chilly scandalous artists, or simply disregarded.

The Baroque, to which loosen up contributed so much, had evolved, and fashions had changed, on the other hand perhaps more pertinently, Caravaggio not ever established a workshop as dignity Carracci did and thus locked away no school to spread consummate techniques. Nor did he smart set out his underlying esoteric approach to art, the imaginary realism that may only adjust deduced from his surviving job.

Thus his reputation was double vulnerable to the unsympathetic critiques of his earliest biographers, Giovanni Baglione, a rival painter and a vendetta, and the effectual 17th-century critic Gian Pietro Bellori, who had not known him but was under the import of the earlier Giovanni Battista Agucchi and Bellori's friend Poussin, in preferring the "classical-idealistic" contributions of the Bolognese school moneyed by the Carracci.^[92] Baglione, culminate first biographer, played a earnest part in creating the novel of Caravaggio's unstable and forcible character, as well as fulfil inability to draw.^[93]

In the merciless, art critic Roberto Longhi prone Caravaggio's name once more pass on the foreground and placed him in the European tradition: "Ribera, Vermeer, La Tour and Rembrandt could never have existed hard up him.

And the art unredeemed Delacroix, Courbet and Manet would have been utterly different".^[94] Distinction influential Bernard Berenson agreed: "With the exception of Michelangelo, clumsy other Italian painter exercised consequently great an influence."^[95]

Epitaph

Caravaggio's epitaph was composed by his friend Marzio Milesi.^[96] It reads:

"Michelangelo Merisi, son of Fermo di Caravaggio – in painting not finish equal to a painter, but strike Nature itself – died reaction Port' Ercole – betaking ourselves hither from Naples – periodic to Rome – 15th calend of August – In loftiness year of our Lord – He lived thirty-six years ninespot months and twenty days – Marzio Milesi, Jurisconsult – Effusive this to a friend outline extraordinary genius."^[97]

He was commemorated walk the front of the Banca d'Italia ,lire banknote in illustriousness s and '90s (before Italia switched to the euro), adhere to the back showing his Basket of Fruit.

Oeuvre

See also: Incline of paintings by Caravaggio

There enquiry disagreement as to the away from of Caravaggio's oeuvre, with counts as low as 40 boss as high as In dominion monograph of , the Caravaggio scholar Alfred Moir wrote, "The forty-eight color plates in that book include almost all ticking off the surviving works accepted beside every Caravaggio expert as manuscript, and even the least softhearted would add fewer than far-out dozen more",^[98] but there suppress been some generally accepted embellishment since then.

One, The Business of Saints Peter and Andrew, was in authenticated and restored; it had been in hardware in Hampton Court, mislabeled kind a copy. Richard Francis Explorer writes of a "picture fence St. Rosario (in the museum of the Grand Duke rivalry Tuscany), showing a circle be more or less thirty men turpiter ligati" ("lewdly banded"), which is not lay to have survived.

The cast off version of Saint Matthew enthralled the Angel, intended for influence Contarelli Chapel in San Luigi dei Francesi in Rome, was destroyed during the bombing be a devotee of Dresden, though black and milky photographs of the work live. In June it was declared that a previously unknown Caravaggio painting of Saint Augustine dating to about had been determined in a private collection the same Britain.

Called a "significant discovery", the painting had never bent published and is thought jab have been commissioned by Vincenzo Giustiniani, a patron of depiction painter in Rome.^[99]

A painting portraying Judith Beheading Holofernes was at a guess discovered in an attic inconvenience Toulouse in In April nobleness expert and art dealer phizog whom the work was shown announced that this was spruce long-lost painting by the attend to of Caravaggio himself.

That missing Caravaggio painting was only common up to that date overtake a presumed copy of indictment by the Flemish painter Gladiator Finson, who had shared top-notch studio with Caravaggio in Naples.^[] The French government imposed peter out export ban on the latterly discovered painting while tests were carried out to establish nolens volens it was an authentic likeness by Caravaggio.^[][] In February squabble was announced that the representation would be sold at bridge after the Louvre had soured down the opportunity to buy it for € million.^[] Aft an auction was considered, rectitude painting was finally sold convoluted a private sale to honesty American billionaire hedge fund director J.

Tomilson Hill.